🇸🇸 South Sudan

The Dinka, Anyuak, Bari, Acholi, Nuer, Shilluk and Kaligi first entered what is now South Sudan sometime before the tenth century, coinciding with the fall of medieval Nubia. These arrivals established the ethnic foundations of the modern state.

Between the fifteenth and nineteenth centuries migrations largely from Bahr el Ghazal brought the Anyuak, Dinka, Nuer and Shilluk to Bahr el Ghazal and the Upper Nile region, while the Acholi and Bari settled in Equatoria. This distribution still defines South Sudan's ethnic geography and its patterns of communal conflict.

These groups arrived in the sixteenth century and built the largest pre-colonial polity in the Equatoria region. It formed the most substantial indigenous state structure in the territory.

In the eighteenth century the Avungara sib established domination over the rest of Azande society, a supremacy that continued into the twentieth century. The Azande under king Gbudwe also pursued an expansionist policy that shaped relations with neighbouring groups.

Egypt under the Muhammad Ali dynasty occupied Sudan during the nineteenth century, drawing the region into an imperial framework. This began the external administration of the territory that would later become South Sudan.

During the nineteenth century Azande forces resisted French, Belgian and Mahdist encroachment on their territory. Their resistance preserved local autonomy against competing colonial and Sudanese powers.

Ottoman Egypt under Khedive Ismail Pasha moved to control the southern region in the 1870s, creating the province of Equatoria. Samuel Baker was commissioned as first governor in 1869, followed by Charles George Gordon in 1874 and Emin Pasha in 1878.

Mahdist forces swept through southern Sudan in 1885, ending Egyptian administration until their regime was overthrown by the British in 1898.

The Mahdist Revolt of the 1880s destabilised the nascent province of Equatoria, which ceased to exist as an Egyptian outpost in 1889. Egyptian administrative penetration of the south collapsed, leaving the region without external governance until British reconquest.

European colonial manoeuvring in the region culminated in the 1898 Fashoda Incident at present-day Kodok, where Britain and France almost went to war. The outcome confirmed British paramountcy over the upper Nile.

After a British force overthrew the Mahdist regime in 1898, an Anglo-Egyptian condominium was established the following year, with Equatoria the southernmost of its eight provinces. Sudan was administered this way until independence in 1956, with British policy emphasising development of the Arabised north and largely ignoring the south, which lacked schools, hospitals, roads and bridges.

The isolated region was largely left to itself during the decades of Anglo-Egyptian rule, but Christian missionaries converted much of the population and facilitated the spread of English.

The 1922 ordinance, combined with the swamplands along the White Nile, curtailed the spread of Islam into the south. Southern tribes consequently retained much of their political and religious institutions, deepening the divide with the Arabised north.

British colonial authorities formalised a 'Southern Policy' in 1930, governing the mainly Christian and animist south separately from the Arab and Muslim north and restricting movement between the two. The policy entrenched a divide that shaped decades of conflict after independence.

In 1946 Britain abandoned separate southern administration and began implementing a policy of uniting north and south. Taken without southern consultation, the reversal set the stage for post-independence grievance and revolt.

Southern army units mutinied in Torit in August 1955, beginning a 17-year insurgency against rule from Khartoum. The war ended with the 1972 Addis Ababa Agreement, which granted southern Sudan a decade of regional autonomy before war resumed.

Sudan became independent in 1956, ending the Anglo-Egyptian condominium. The 1956 census was also the last official count to record religion, finding a majority following traditional beliefs or Christianity and 18 per cent Muslim.

Sudan's first independent elections were held in 1958, but continued neglect of the south by the Khartoum government led to uprisings, revolts and the longest civil war on the continent. Affected communities spanned virtually all southern ethnic groups.

Following the First Sudanese Civil War, the Southern Sudan Autonomous Region was formed in 1972 and lasted until 1983. English also became the principal language of administration in the south from 1972.

War resumed in 1983 as the autonomous region ended and Sudan's government imposed Islamic law nationwide, pitting the Sudan People's Liberation Army/Movement under John Garang against Khartoum for over twenty years. Estimates of the death toll vary widely, with about two million to more than 2.5 million people believed killed through fighting, famine and disease, and millions becoming refugees inside and outside the country.

Around 2005 the predominantly rural, subsistence-farming economy began shifting as urban areas saw extensive development. The change coincided with the onset of autonomy and oil revenue sharing.

Surveys begun in 2005 by the Wildlife Conservation Society with the semi-autonomous government found that significant, though diminished, wildlife populations survived the war. The huge migration of 1.3 million antelopes in the southeast was found substantially intact.

The Sudanese government and the Sudan People's Liberation Army signed the Comprehensive Peace Agreement in January 2005, ending 22 years of civil war. The deal granted southern Sudan autonomy — with an interim constitution recognising Arabic alongside English — and the right to hold an independence referendum after six years, the vote that produced independence.

John Garang, a founder of the SPLA/M who had led the south's rebellion for two decades and was president of the autonomous government, died in a helicopter crash on 30 July 2005, three weeks after being sworn in as Sudan's first vice-president. His death triggered riots in Khartoum and Juba amid suspicion over the crash's cause, and removed the movement's dominant figure, including his reported plans to relocate the capital to Ramciel.

Kiir, Garang's deputy, was sworn in as First Vice-President of Sudan and President of the Government of Southern Sudan on 11 August 2005. He has led the southern government and subsequently the independent state ever since.

In 2006 Kiir announced his government would do everything possible to protect and propagate wildlife and plant life, and reduce the effects of wildfires, waste dumping and water pollution. It marked an early statement of environmental policy for the autonomous government.

In 2007 English was adopted as the official language of communication, consolidating its role since 1972. The choice oriented the territory away from Arabic and towards East Africa.

A defence paper was initiated in 2007 by the then Minister for SPLA Affairs, with a draft produced in 2008. It represented an early attempt to formalise defence planning ahead of statehood.

The census covering Sudan as a whole was conducted in April 2008. It remains a key reference point given the absence of a census in South Sudan for several decades.

In 2009 Sudan launched a census of southern Sudanese, including the diaspora, in preparation for the 2011 independence referendum. It was criticised for omitting countries hosting large shares of the diaspora while counting those with few.

In 2010 the CIA issued a warning that over the following five years a new mass killing or genocide was most likely to occur in southern Sudan. The Nuer White Army's declared intent to wipe out the Murle and warnings from Minority Rights Group International over Jonglei reinforced the alarm.

Since independence South Sudan has struggled with good governance and nation building, and has attempted to control rebel militia groups operating in its territory. In 2011 it was reported that the new state faced at least seven insurgent groups across nine of its ten states, displacing tens of thousands; fighters accused the government of entrenching itself in power, excluding tribal groups and neglecting rural development, while the Lord's Resistance Army also operated in the area.

Held between 9 and 15 January 2011 under the Comprehensive Peace Agreement, the referendum returned 98.83 per cent support for separation from Sudan. The United States supported the vote, which the New York Times described as largely orchestrated by Washington.

On 23 January 2011 a post-independence steering committee settled on the name Republic of South Sudan. Alternatives considered included Azania, Jubanda, Nile Republic, Kush Republic and Juwama.

In February 2011 the government resolved to study creating a new planned city as the seat of government, given Juba's poor infrastructure, rapid urban growth and lack of centrality. In September 2011 leaders accepted a proposal to build the capital at Ramciel in Lakes state; as of 2024 the project is stalled.

In May 2011 the SPLA was alleged to have burned more than 7,000 homes in Unity State. The episode signalled the army's conduct towards civilians on the eve of independence.

Fighting broke out in June 2011 between Sudanese forces and the SPLA over the Nuba Mountains in South Kordofan. The conflict underlined the unresolved border and allegiance questions left by partition.

South Sudan formally separated from Sudan on 9 July 2011, after almost 99 per cent of voters backed separation in a January 2011 referendum held under the 2005 peace agreement, becoming the world's newest widely recognised sovereign state and the 193rd member of the United Nations. Sudan, Egypt, Germany and Kenya were among the first to recognise it on 8 July, followed by the United States, though disputes over oil revenue division and Abyei remained unresolved.

Shortly before independence on 9 July 2011 the Assembly ratified a transitional constitution, superseding the Interim Constitution of 2005. It became the supreme law of the land, and unlike its predecessor gave Arabic no legal status.

South Sudan joined the United Nations on 14 July 2011 as its 193rd member, days after independence. It joined the African Union as its 54th member on 27 July 2011.

South Sudan's government said on 23 June 2026 that the country's first general election since independence would be held on 22 December 2026, after repeated delays. Sceptics questioned whether conditions would allow a credible vote given the ongoing conflict.

South Sudan inaugurated its first Air Traffic Management Control System on 18 May 2026, developed jointly with the Chinese government. The system was intended to improve oversight of national airspace, an area of persistent safety concerns given the country's history of aviation accidents.

The UN Security Council voted on 30 April 2026 to cut the peacekeeping mission in South Sudan from 17,000 to 12,000 personnel. The reduction came despite continuing violence, including a massacre that killed more than 160 people the previous month, and drew concern from aid agencies.

In March 2026 armed youth from Unity State attacked Abiemnom County in the Ruweng Administrative Area, killing at least 169 people and injuring 50, burning markets and homes before the army drove them out. The attack formed part of a growing surge of violence between forces aligned with Kiir and groups believed to support Machar.

Armed youths linked to a rebel faction attacked Abiemnom County in the Ruweng Administrative Area on 1 March 2026, killing at least 169 people. The killings were among the deadliest single incidents since the near-collapse of the 2018 peace agreement the previous year.

A drone attack struck a hospital run by Médecins Sans Frontières in Lankien, Jonglei State, on 3 February 2026. The charity said the strike was carried out by government forces, adding to a series of attacks on healthcare facilities during the renewed fighting.

Rebels loyal to the SPLA-IO seized the town of Panyume in Central Equatoria on 20 January 2026. The army chief responded by ordering government forces to end the rebellion within seven days, underscoring the collapse of the 2018 power-sharing agreement.

In 2026 around 10 million people, about two-thirds of the population, were estimated to need humanitarian assistance. The IPC projected over 7.5 million facing high levels of acute food insecurity during the 2026 lean season, with several areas at risk of famine.

South Sudanese forces deployed to the Heglig oilfield in Sudan's West Kordofan on 10 December 2025, under a tripartite arrangement with the Sudanese army and the Rapid Support Forces. The oilfield feeds the pipeline carrying South Sudan's main export and revenue source to Port Sudan.

The government grounded four UN aircraft on 15 December 2025, alleging illegal surveillance and smuggling. The same week, SSPDF soldiers abducted and killed a UN interpreter travelling in a UN vehicle near Wau, prompting the arrest of two suspects.

President Donald Trump issued a proclamation on 16 December 2025 barring South Sudanese nationals from entering the United States, part of an expanded travel ban covering 39 countries. The measure came as relations were already strained over deportations and the conflict at home.

The government charged Vice President Riek Machar with murder, treason and crimes against humanity on 11 September 2025 over clashes earlier that year in Nasir, and suspended him from office. His party said the move effectively ended the 2018 peace deal.

On 26 March 2025 Machar was arrested on Kiir's orders, accused of instigating and supporting the Nuer White Army after clashes at Nasir left dozens dead. His supporters were mass-sacked and Ugandan troops were invited in; the SPLM-IO said the arrest violated the 2020 ceasefire and the UN Secretary-General declared the peace agreement in shambles.

By January 2025 more than a million people had crossed into South Sudan from the 2023 war in Sudan. By April 2026 over 1.3 million had entered, including 900,000 South Sudanese returnees, straining markets, services and natural resources.

During 2025 ceasefire violations and combat intensified, with aerial bombardments, river-based operations, ambushes and retaliatory attacks reported. Civilian casualties, displacement and loss of livelihoods followed, and 7.7 million people, 57 per cent of the population, faced acute food insecurity.

Elections originally scheduled for 2023 by the peace agreement were moved to late 2024 by agreement in 2022, then postponed a further two years to December 2026 by Kiir's office in September 2024. Repeated delay has left the country without an electoral mandate; V-Dem ranked it the third lowest electoral democracy in Africa in 2023.

On 8 May 2021 Kiir dissolved Parliament to establish a new legislative body of 550 lawmakers, as provided by the 2018 peace agreement. The reconstitution was a core element of the transitional political settlement.

On 20 February 2020 Kiir and Machar agreed a peace deal, and on 22 February a transitional national unity government was formed with Machar sworn in as First Vice-President under the terms of the 2018 peace agreement, ending more than a year of delays over unresolved security arrangements. The agreement also divided the country into ten states, two administrative areas and one area with special administrative status.

The Juba Public Peace Library opened in Gudele 2 on 1 October 2019 as South Sudan's first public library. It maintains over 13,000 books and employs more than 40 volunteers.

President Kiir and opposition leader Machar signed the Revitalised Agreement on the Resolution of the Conflict in South Sudan in September 2018, mediated by regional states. The deal restored Machar to the vice-presidency and set out a roadmap towards elections, though implementation was repeatedly delayed.

Famine was declared in parts of Unity and Northern Bahr el Ghazal States in February 2017 amid conflict, economic collapse, high food prices and restricted humanitarian access. Expanded humanitarian operations contained the famine by mid-2017, but severe food insecurity persisted with 5–6 million people in crisis phases from 2018 onward.

In 2017 Nile Drilling & Services began operating as the first locally owned and run drilling firm in the country. It marked a step toward domestic capability in the sector supplying over 90 per cent of state revenue.

South Sudan was approved for EAC membership in March 2016, acceded to the Treaty on 15 April 2016, and became a full member on 15 August 2016. Membership anchored the country in the East African bloc rather than the Arab world.

The Commission was created in March 2016 to investigate abuses. In December 2017 it concluded after a 12-day visit that gross human rights violations continued to be committed widely by all parties, with civilians bearing the brunt.

Inflation rose sharply in 2015 and peaked at 380 per cent in 2016, driven by the Bank of South Sudan monetising the fiscal deficit. It declined steadily through 2019 as money printing slowed, remaining low or negative from 2020 to 2022 before rising again to around 90 per cent in 2024.

Heavy fighting broke out between government and opposition forces in Juba in July 2016, killing hundreds and collapsing the 2015 peace agreement. Riek Machar fled the capital on foot and eventually into exile, resuming the civil war.

Journalists staged a nationwide 24-hour blackout in August 2015 after Peter Moi was killed in a targeted attack, the seventh journalist killed that year. Kiir had earlier in 2015 threatened to kill journalists reporting against the country.

After repeated IGAD-mediated ceasefires collapsed, a peace agreement was signed in Ethiopia in August 2015 under threat of UN sanctions on both sides. Machar returned to Juba in 2016 and was made vice-president, but fled after violence resumed.

In April 2014 Navi Pillay stated that over 9,000 children were fighting in South Sudan's civil war. Armed groups had attacked civilians on ethnic grounds since fighting began in December 2013, including the 2014 Bentiu massacre.

South Sudan submitted an application for Arab League membership on 25 March 2014, which remains pending. The bid sat awkwardly with the state's simultaneous orientation toward the East African Community.

Fighting broke out in Juba in December 2013 after President Kiir accused Vice-President Machar and ten others of plotting a coup, splitting the army and ruling party along ethnic lines. Ugandan troops deployed alongside government forces and the UN maintained UNMISS peacekeepers; estimates of the death toll vary widely, from about 190,000 to 400,000 killed, with around four million displaced.

After the application was initially deferred in December 2012, Tanzania officially agreed to South Sudan's bid to join the EAC, opening the path to becoming the bloc's sixth member. The EAC set aside $82,000 for the admission process in May 2013.

On 4 April 2012 plans were announced to launch a South Sudanese national carrier, initially for domestic routes with eventual international service. The move reflected efforts to build transport capability in a country with only 248 km of railway.

In March 2012 South Sudanese forces took the disputed Heglig oil fields in South Kordofan after clashes with Sudanese troops in Unity state. South Sudan withdrew on 20 March and the Sudanese Army entered Heglig two days later.

Economic conditions deteriorated after the government halted oil production in January 2012 following bilateral disagreements with Sudan over transit fees and the division of revenues, causing a dramatic fall in state income and a 120 per cent rise in food costs. Oil dominates the economy, providing more than 90 per cent of state revenues by 2023.

In December 2011 fighting intensified between the Lou Nuer's White Army and the Murle, with the White Army threatening to wipe out the Murle and to fight South Sudanese and UN forces. The violence demonstrated the state's inability to contain inter-ethnic warfare predating independence.

In December 2011 US sanctions against Sudan were officially removed from applicability to the newly independent South Sudan. Senior officials then attended a high-level engagement conference in Washington to connect foreign investors with South Sudanese business.

On 1 November 2011 the NSS arrested the editor of the private Juba-based daily Destiny and suspended its activities indefinitely. Opposition leader Peter Abdul Rahaman Sule was also arrested on 3 November 2011 over alleged links to a new rebel group.

South Sudan was admitted to UNESCO on 3 November 2011 and officially joined the Intergovernmental Authority on Development on 25 November 2011. Membership embedded the new state in regional and multilateral institutions.